coping strategies for stress

Coping Strategies For Stress

 

Any high-level stress affects the individual directly and through him, his family and organisation. Therefore, efforts should be made to overcome the negative consequences. Such efforts can be made at two levels: individual level and organisational level.

 

Individual Coping Strategies

Stress may cause within organisational context and outside as discussed earlier. Therefore, coping strategies may be adopted by individuals without reference to the organisation. Individual coping strategies tend to be more reactive in nature. That is, they tend to be ways of coping with stress that has already occurred. Some individual strategies, such as physical exercises, can be both reactive and proactive, but most are geared towards helping the person who is already suffering from stress. Following are the major individual coping strategies.

 

1.         Physical Exercise. Physical exercise is a good strategy to get body fit and to overcome tress. Physical exercises of different types such as, walking, jogging, swimming, playing, etc: are good methods of overcoming stress. The role of Yoga, a scientific technique of physical exercise to keep body fit and to overcome stress, has been recognised in most part of the world. Physical exercise helps people to better cope with stress generally as a side effect, such as relaxation, enhanced self-esteem, and simply getting one's mind off work for a while.

 

2.         Relaxation. Impact of stress can be overcome by relaxation. The relaxation can be a simple one or some specific techniques of relaxation such as biofeedback and meditation. In biofeedback, the individual learns the internal rhythms of a particular 30dy process through electronic signals feedback that is wired to the body area (for example, skin, brain, or heart). From this feedback, the person can learn to control body process in question. Meditation involves quiet concentrated inner thought in order to rest the body physically and emotionally. Transcendental meditation is one of the more popular practices of meditation. In this practice, the mediator tries to meditate for two periods of fifteen to twenty minutes a day, concentrating on the environment of some mantra. Any meditation essentially involves a relatively quiet environment, a comfortable position, a repetitive mental stimulus, and a passive attitude. Meditation has been recognised as a powerful technique for reducing stress. Whether a person takes easy one or specific relaxation technique, the intent is to eliminate the immediately stressful situation or manage a prolonged stressful situation more effectively.

 

3.         Work-home Transition. Work-home transition is also like a relaxation technique. In this technique, a person may attend to less pressure inducing type or routine work during the last 30 or 60 minutes of work time. For instance, during the last hour of work, the person can review the day's activities, list the priorities of the activities that need to be attended to the next day. Thus, he can finish his day's work and come back relaxed manner.

 

4.         Cognitive Therapy. Because of increasing stress, special cognitive therapy techniques have been developed by psychologists. In these techniques, lectures and interactive discussion sessions are arranged to help participants: (i) recognise events at work and what cognitions they elicit; (ii) become aware of the effects of such cognitions on their physiological and emotional responses; (iii) systematicaly evaluate the objective consequences of events at work; and (iv) replace self-defeating cognitions that unnecessarily arouse strain.

 

5.         Networking. Networking is the formation of close associations with trustee _ empathetic co-workers and colleagues who are good listeners and confidence builde Such persons provide mental support to get the person through stressful situatior:

 

Organizational Coping Strategies

Organisational coping strategies are more of proactive nature, that is, they attempt a: removing existing or potential stressors and prevent the onset of stress of individua jobholders. As discussed earlier, there are many organisational stressors. Therefore the organisational coping strategies revolve round those factors which produce 0 help producing stresses. Following are organisational coping techniques Cl.nd efforts

 

1. Supportive Organisational Climate. Many of the organisational stressors emerge because of faulty organisational processes and practices. To a very great extent, these can be controlled by creating supportive organisational climate. Supportive organisational climate, as discussed later, depends upon managerial leadership rather than the use of power and money to control organisational behaviour. The focus is primarily on participation and involvement of employees in decision-making process. Such a climate develops belongingness among people whi£h helps them reduce their stress ..

 

2. Job Enrichment. A major source of stress is the monotonous and disinteresting jobs being performed by employees in the organisation. Through mote rational designing of jobs, as discussed earlier, jobs can be enriched. Improving content factors such as responsibility, recognition, opportunity for achievement and advancement, or improving core job characteristics such as skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback may lead to motivation, feeling sense of responsibility, and utilising maximum capability at the work. Such a phenomenon helps in reducing stress.

 

3. Organisational Role Clarity. People experience stress when they are not clear about what they are expected to do in the organisation. This may happen because either there is ambiguity in the role or there is role conflict. Such a situation can be overcome by defining role more clearly. Role analysis technique helps both managers and employees to analyse what the job entails and what the expectations are. Breaking down the job to its various components clarifies the role of the job incumbent for the entire system. This helps to eliminate imposing unrealistic expectations on the individual. Role ambiguity, role conflict and role overload can be minimised, consequently leading to reduced stress.

 

4. Career Planning and Counselling. Career planning and counselling helps the employees to obtain professional advice regarding career paths that would help them to achieve personal goals. It also makes them aware of what additional qualifications, training, and skills they should acquire for career advancement. A variety of career counselling programmes can be adopted: (i) devices designed to aid the individuals in self-assessment and increased self-understanding; (ii) devices designed to communicate opportunities available to individuals; (iii) career counselling through interviews by managers, counselling professionals and personnel and educational specialists; (iv) workshops and educational activities designed to assist the individuals in goal setting and establishing action plan for change; (v) educational and experimental programmes to prepare individuals with skills and knowledge for new activities and new careers; programmes (vi) programmes for enhancing the individuals' opportunities to make job and career changes. Various career planning and counselling programmes for individuals go a 6 way in providing them satisfaction and reducing the stress.

 

5. Stress Control Workshops and Employee Assistance Programmes. The 5anisation can hold periodical workshops for control and reduction of stress. Such workshops may help individuals to learn the dynamics of stress and methods of overcoming their ill effects. Similarly, the organisation can make arrangement for assisting individuals in overcoming their personal and family problems. This arrangement may include managing personal finance, dealing with family problems, dealing with health problems, and dealing with other kind of personal and family stresses.

 

Both types of coping strategies for stress-individual and organisational-taken together not necessarily guarantee that individuals will not experience stress. However, such strategies may help either in reducing the tendency of occurring stresses or if stresses have occurred, help in minimising their negative impact.

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strtegy for IAS mains

STRATEGY FOR THE PREPARATION (MAINS EXAM.)
I would like to reiterate what I have said earlier also – “Winners do not do different things, they do things differently”.
The knack is putting you in the shoes of the examiner. A little understanding of the psychology of the examiner, this can be done by putting yourself in the examiner's place. What you would like in any answer sheet? Clarity of thought, lucidity, good content, well expressed language. In short, good Communication Skill (Written Communication) so that the answer script speaks for itself.
The reason why I began with writing skill is that it is the most important component in the preparation for the Mains Examination. There are many intelligent students, well versed with knowledge about their subject matter and yet they do not score in the Mains Examination. Why? Of course, luck and destiny is there. But another reason is faulty writing skill.
Thus Civil Services Examination requires a two-pronged strategy to hit the target Content and Writing Skill. Now I will take up both these components in detail.
Content involves the following:
(a) Conceptual understanding.
(b) Facts.
(c) Manipulating the facts.
(d) Something new, in terms of knowledge base or linkages or ingenuity or diagrams
1. Conceptual understanding - of the subject matter is most important. Give a layman's interpretation to the concepts and relate it with mundane example for long term memory.
2. Facts - After conceptual understanding, the second step is memorizing the important facts.
For example - some important theoretical aspects are to be memorized to attempt any question related to the spatial analysis of the subject matter.
3. Something New - new diagrams, new ideas, original ideas, new content, latest reports, linkages etc.
However, one has to be cautious that a balance is maintained and the ideas are not too radical. Also it should be well integrated with the answer.
Writing Skill:
1. Be short and precise.
2. Writing should be legible and neat.
3. Grammatical errors to be avoided.
4. Simple language.
5. Neat diagrams whenever it is required to give precision to your answer.
Writing skill does not mean a decorative language, having extra-ordinary vocabulary. It means that the ideas should be well expressed in a lucid manner. Simple language but a speaking Language is the demand i.e. the answer sheet should speak out everything for itself with requisite words, depends on the nature of the subject matter. There should be no ambiguity in the answers.
Writing skill comes through practice. Writing skill is also based on your knowledge base and conceptual understanding. This only can give flow and lucidity to your answers. The conceptual understanding will make your answer well organized and well integrated.
Thus, writing skill and content both should complement and supplement each other. Writing skill has its base in content and content needs writing skill to be well expressed.
EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION (SEVEN PRINCIPLES)
1. Underline the key words.
2. Underline the latest updates that you have incorporated in your answer.
3. Make some lucid diagrams to make your presentation effective. But remember that the diagrams need to be well integrated with your answer.
4. Each topic has some key words and the examiner expects you to write them.
5. Another, crucial factor which many of us tend to overlook is the selection of the first answer. Remember. “FIRST IMPRESSION IS THE LAST IMPRESSION”, hence your first answer should be your best answer, Len one in which you have command and also have SOMETHING NEW to give - in the form of linkages, recent reports, diagrams, maps etc.
Why Psychology as an optional?
Psychology is the study of behaviour of human beings and animals and application of it for the benefit of mankind. It is equally favourite among all streams of students irrespective of their background to appear in the Civil Services Main Examination. Besides being interesting in nature its simplicity and more marks fetching character attracts the students.
Civil Services preparation is not just a preparation but strategic preparation. To be successful not only hard work, determination, dedication, etc required but also wise selection of subjects. Psychology is the subject which provides limited course and adequate gap with other optionals thus enhancing the chances of selection.
The best approach is to go through all the available material for the better understanding but you are not doing a PhD course but want to be selected in the civil services .Coaching institutions share this burden from you and filter the relevant material so that you can better utilize your scarce resources of time, money and energy.
But in this market of coaching institutions you need wisdom to choose the right one. We claim that we multiplies your chances by providing.
Best available topic and sub-topic wise material (so that you can cruise through no matter from where question is asked “as last year 2006 exam”)
Flow chart presentation (Easy to Remember and more marks fetching in character)
Development of appropriate linkages (Transfer of Training so that better application in second paper)
Updated material (To cope up with the growing advances ,which serve the purpose of cherry on your pudding)
Application of Phemonia and other easy to remember techniques
Individual attention to every student (Proper strength ,weakness, opportunities and threats analysis)
Above are the few important points, rest you experience yourself with me and chalk your destiny.
SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO PREPARE PYSCHOLOGY
(MAINS EXAMINATION)
EIGHT Steps
1. Read the basic books first, rather than going for journals and foreign authors etc. whether ‘Preliminary Examination’ or ‘Mains’, what is required as a first step is the mastering of the BASICS (A, B, C) of the subject. So, first step requires mastering these.
2. While reading, focus has to be on CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING rather than simply memorizing the facts. The Facts are easier to memorize if the concepts are clear.
3. Memorizing the F ACTS (even the conceptual words, books-authors etc. If one has the subject in the Preliminary Examination). Using Mnemonics or other interesting methods which suits your style, you can do this.
4. Make your flashcard or one register in which all your facts are intact and you can revise them anytime.
Rather than simply collecting new fact everyday, focus should be on revising what you have with you. Only when that is memorized thoroughly move on the new facts. Even when you are reading the new material, keep coming to the old materials in between. This is very important, else during the examination, you will remember that you have read something like this somewhere but "what was it exactly" might not come to you mind and the memory of it will remain only as a faint image. This has to be checked. The ultimate success depends on not ‘what all you have read’ but ‘how’ much you retain it’. How far you have practiced diagrams as well organizing the event in chronological manner. This is very crucial and should not he neglected.
5. Solve as many questions as possible. One should solve all the previous years questions of UPSC and solve them again and again. Many of the questions are repeated. Even if the same questions are not repeated in the same words, quite often the areas remain the same.
6. Analyze the previous year UPSC question paper thoroughly and try to chalk out the areas of the question. Also write down these questions topic wise and keep going through them again and again.
7. Mark the mistakes, which you commit while solving these questions. Do not overlook them and do not lie to yourself that “it was a careless mistake”. Even was a careless mistake like overlooking the word "not" in the question, be cautious that you should not repeat it in the examination hall. Also analyze your mistake thoroughly whether it was due to lack of conceptual understanding or it was forgetting the facts. Master you weakness after analyzing them.
NOTE OF CAUTION- Do not read the guide first and then the basic books. It has to be the other way round.
8. Last but not the least, discuss with your friend. Discussion helps a lot provided it is honest discussion with the motive to help the other and in turn getting help. Else it can be disastrous also.
These are broadly some tips, which can help you in the Mains as well as Preliminary Examination. However, what matters most is the mental calmness and cool, which you maintain in the examination hall. Do not panic if you do not know any question. Apply your mind. Though not always, but most of the times the questions can be rightly solved if one maintains his cool and analyses it logically. However, ultimately what matters is giving your hest shot and leaving the rest on him.
9. Try to integrate the statement of the question, somewhere in you answer. Either begin with it or end with it. This makes your answer FOCUSSED and well knit.
10. Last, but not the least, just before your examination give your precious three to four hours to those things which are the dynamic aspects of your preparation. This includes the latest updates, reports, diagrams etc. Even glancing over these things at the last moment makes they alive and fresh in your memory (provided you have read them earlier) and they can be reproduced more authentically in the examination. This will definitely make the Difference.
These are the SEVEN GOLDEN RULES for fetching marks in PSYCHOLOGY. These are not merely to be memorized and retold to others, but need to be applied in writing answers.
So the thrust should be on writing answers and getting them evaluated. The more you practice the better answers you would be able to write. Next, I come to the question of reading list. But remember “It is not wide reading but useful reading that tends to excellence”.

information processing theories of learning

INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORIES OF LEARNING

Information processing theories of learning represent the group of theories that make use of the concept of information processing for explaining the mechanism of learning. Let us, therefore, try to understand the meaning and concept of information processing for gaining insight in the nature of these theories.

What is Information Processing?

Simply put, information processing stands for an act of processing the information, i.e. to analyze, employ or make use of information for gaining some knowledge or experience. In the words of Joyce and Weil-"lnformation processing refers to the ways people handle stimuli from the environment, organize data, sense problems, generate concepts and solutions to problems, and employ verbal and non-verbal symbols."

In this way information processing deals with the ways and means an information (sensory input or data) is handled by an individual for deriving desired meaning for its further use. Consequently, the handling or processing of the information may help an individual in gaining new experiences and insight for the solution of felt problems or modification of his ways of behaving.

Information Processing Theories
The way people process the available information (resulting in gaining new experiences or bringing modification in their behaviour), may give birth to significant theories of learning. This very assumption has led to the formulation and establishment of some well known learning theories termed as information processing theories of learning. The key question answered by all these information processing theories of learning is: "Cognitively, what process are occurring in a person's brain when they are presented with a learning situation." Consequently they throw light on the mechanism how the human brain senses, processes and recalls information. The working of our brain, in terms of information processing, may be easily equated to the working of computers. Like computers, the information processing in human brain may find its expression in the mechanism of input, processing and output. The brain receives sensory impulses from the environment and decides to process this input as warranted. Processing depends on the nature and complexity of the data as perceived by the learner. The way, information is received, processed and recalled by the learner then decides the outcomes of his learning.

For gaining some idea about the nature and functioning of information processing theories of learning, we would be discussing here some of the popular theories and models of instruction developed by the eminent psychologists. In such description, we may easily notice a significant trend that all these Information processing theorists approach learning primarily through a study of memory and so you can find due mention of the terms related to the process of memorization like temporary memory, short term memory, long term memory, recall, retrieval, etc. Let us begin with the description of these theories one by one.

Three Stage Information Processing Theory
This theory is the outcome of the ideas propagated by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968, 1971). According to this theory, learning is the outcome of the processing of the information carried out by human brain at the following three stages.
(i) Sensory registry (ii) Short term memory and (iii) Long term memory.
1. The process of learning or memorization thus starts with the interaction of one's sense organs with one's environment. The sensory information is first picked up by one or more sense organs, then it travels through the nervous system and reaches the brain for its interpretation. The sensory information stays in the nervous system Gust to register its presence) briefly about a second or two, giving brain the time for its interpretation. After being registered in the sensory register, it can be responded immediately or may be transferred to the short term memory. Usually it depends upon the nature of sensory information and its interpretation by the brain. The brain may interpret it as useless or of little significance and thus may order for its disappearance from the sensory register or it may be ordered for its monitoring at a low attention level. As an example of such type of information processing at the sensory registry level, we can cite the driving of our car while carrying on a conversation. Here we can monitor and respond to driving conditions without transferring the information to short term memory.
2. The information not processed or vanished at the level of sensory registry then travels to short term memory (STM) of our brain. It may automatically stay for up to 20 seconds here. However, it can be retained as long as an individual wants it in his short term memory through rehearsal or repetition. Short tenn memory is equivalent to one's working memory. It is here that the information is duly processed by the brain for its proper interpretation, assimilation and responding. There are usually three means employed for the information processing or handling of cognitive tasks in STM. These are:
(i) Encoding the information in chunks. (ii) Breaking the information into sub parts and then processing them one at a time. (iii) Practicing skills until they are automatic.

3. The information unprocessed at the short term memory stage, is then transferred to the long term memory (LTM). LTM is believed to have unlimited capacity and duration. It is used for storing and procession of sensory information on a permanent basis. The stored as well as organized information in the long tenn memory (LTM) in the coded form is transferred back to the short term memory where it is decoded and employed for response as desired and ordered by our brain.
Levels of Processing Theory
This theory of information processing has been put up by Craik and Lokhart (1972) as an alternative to the above discussed information processing theory postulating three stages-sensory, working and long term memory for the processing of information. The main ideas lying within this theory may be summarized as below:
• Memory is of only one kind rather than of three types namely, sensory, short term and long term.
• Ability to learn or remember is dependent on how deeply information is processed by us.
• Levels of such processing may range from very shallow to very deep.
• The greater the depth of processing, the better can the material be learned or remembered.
For example, information that involves strong visual images or many associations with existing knowledge will be processed at a deeper level. Similarly information that suits our interests or serves our purposes well will receive more processing than other stimuli events.
• The things that are meaningful to us are processed quite deeply in comparison to the meaningless or less meaningful stimuli and are consequently learnt or remembered well.
• Processing of inf6rmation at different levels is carried out quite unconsciously and automatically unless we attend it to that level. For example, we are usually not aware of the sensory properties of stimuli, or what we have in own working memory, unless we are asked to specifically identify such information. From this it follows that there is hardly any place for the mechanism of attention in the processing of information. It may thus be taken as an interruption in processing of information rather than a cognitive process in its own right.

Miller's Information Processing Theory
This theory has been put forward by George A. Miller as an extension of the earlier approaches of cognitive psychologists expressing learning primarily in terms of the study of the process of memorization. The main ideas behind his theory may be summarized as below:
(i) Information processing helps in acquiring new experiences and learning new ways of behaving.
(ii) Students learn better when they are actively processing, storing and retrieving information.
(iii) Information processing helps the students build desirable cognitive structures (structuring of the subject matter) for the proper comprehension and understanding.
(iv) Successful encoding is essential for the proper processing of the received sensory information or data. Working memory (STM) also processes the information for being transferred to Long Term Memory (LTM) by encoding the information. Therefore, meaningful encoding is a must for the desired task of information processing.
(v) Miller (1956) presented the concept of "Chunking" for the meaningful organization or encoding of the subject matter at all levels of cognitive processing. Classical example of chunks is the ability to remember long sequences of binary numbers because they can be encoded into decimal form. For example the sequence 1010001001 11001 101 1010 could easily be remembered as 20 9 25 5 10. Of course this would only work for someone who can convert binary to decimal numbers (i.e. the chunks are meaningful).
(vi) We can expand the capacity of a person holding information in his short term memory by utilizing the concept of chunking. It can hold 5-9 chunks of information (seven plus or minus two). Therefore information should always be organized in the form of chunks (meaningful units) for its better processing and fruitful learning outcomes.
(vii) The second useful concept regarding that of the information processing (other than chunking) propagated by Miller is concerned with his acceptance of the computer as a model of human learning. Like the computer, the human mind takes in information, performs operations on it to change its forms and content, stores and locates it and generate responses to it. Thus information processing, according to Miller, involves (i) gathering and representing information, i.e. encoding, (ii) holding information, i.e. retention and (iii) getting at the information when needed, i.e. retrieval.
(viii) The third useful concept emphasized in Miller's information processing theory is known by the term TOTE (Test Operate Test Exit). By introducing this concept, Miller et. al. (1960) suggested that TOTE should replace the stimulus response mechanism as the basic unit of behaviour. In a TOTE unit, a goal is tested to see if it has been achieved through the mechanism of information processing. If not, an operation is performed to achieve the goal, fhis cycle of test-operate is repeated until the goal is eventually achieved or abandoned. By adopting this technique, an individual may be capable of finding the solution of his problem or learning the desired way of achieving his goal.

Dual Coding Theory of Information Processing
This theory has been proposed by A. Paivio as an attempt to give equal weightage in the processing of verbal and non-verbal information in the task of learning. On account of its emphasis on the dual functionality of the verbal and non-verbal information, the theory has been named as Dual coding theory. Initiating his theory Paivio (1986) writes: "Human cognition is unique in that it has become specialized for dealing simultaneously with language and with non-verbal objects and events. Moreover, the language system is peculiar in that it deals directly with linguistic input and output (in the form of speech or writing) while at the same time serving a symbolic function with respect to non-verbal objects, events, and behaviours. Any representational theory must accommodate this dual functionality."

The chief characteristics and main ideas lying behind the dual coding theory of information processing may be summarized as below:
1. According to this theory, there are three types of processing namely representational, referential and associative. A given task may require any or all the three kinds of processing narrated as below:
(i) In representational information processing, there remains a direct activation of verbal and non-verbal representation.
(ii) In referential information processing, there remains an activation of the verbal system by the non-verbal system or vice-versa.
(iii) In associative information processing, there remains an activation of representation within the same verbal or non-verbal system.
2. The theory is based on the assumption that there lies two cognitive subsystems recognized as below.
• The one of these subsystems is specialized for the representation and processing of non-verbal objects or events. (i.e. imagery) .
• The other subsystem is specialized for dealing with language.
3. Based on the above referred two cognitive subsystems, Paivio in his theory postulated two different types of representational units (Similar to "Chunks" as described by Miller) as mentioned below.
(i) Representational units named as 'imagens' for mental images (non-verbal information).
(ii) Representation units named as 'logogens' for verbal entities (verbal information).
4. According to Paivio while logogens are organized in terms of associations and hierarchies, the imagens are organized in terms of part-whole relationships.

5. By following the above mentioned systems and pattern of organization, the information (verbal and non-verbal) is processed appropriately by the individual learner for the desired learning outcomes.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION OF THE THEORIES OF INFORMATION PROCESSING

All the theories of information processing described above may be said to have the following educational implications.
1. The information (verbal or non-verbal) should be organized in terms of meaningful units for its better processing and fruitful learning outcomes.
2. Students should be helped in focusing on the most important details and separating less vital information.
3. Students should be helped in making connection between new information and what they already know.
4. As far as it is adequate and possible, students should be provided for repetition and review of information.
5. The learning material experiences (Instruction) should be organized in a clear, systematic and organized way.
6. We must always focus on meaning and not the memorization of information on the part of students.

role of media (pro and anti social)

MEDIA PRO AND ANTI-SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR

Media is communication - whether written, broadcast, or spoken that reaches a large audience. This includes television, radio, advertising, movies, the internet, newspaper, magazines. Mass media is a significant force in Modern Culture, particularly in developed countries. It is refer to as mediated culture where media reflects and creates the culture.
Communities and individuals are bombarded constantly with messages from a multitude of sources including TV, billboards, and magazines, to name a few. These messages promote not only products, but moods, attitudes, and a sense of what is and is not important. Mass media makes possible the concept of celebrity: without the ability of movies, magazines, and news media to reach across thousands of miles, people could not become famous. In fact, only political and business leaders, as well as the few notorious outlaws, were famous in the past. Only in recent times have actors, singers, and other social elites become celebrities or "stars".
Media has greater role both in anti-social and pro-social behaviour. Moral panics about the anti social content of popular TV programmes detracts from the media's potential pro social role of education, altriusm, and frienly interaction. There is clear evidence of a comparable level of pro social content, with Greenberg et al finding an equivalent number of pro social acts in any hour.
Bandura's social learning theory says we learn by observation how to do things and whether it is acceptable to do them. We may later imitate those behaviours and the consequence of the bhevaiour will determine the liklehood of repeating the behaviours. The more the person identifies with the model, the more likely it is that they will carry out the pro social behaviour that they have learned.
Unlike the depiction of anti social acts (eg murder and fighting), pro social against reinforce rather than contrast with our social norms. This also means will we be rewarded for doing them, which increases the chance will will repeat the behaviour in the future. We might therefore expect pro social content to be at least as influencial as anti social content.
Secondly the stimulation hypothesis says that the media has great potential for education. This may be by providing children with a suitable model to imitate but may most effective when an indivdual is placed in a common situation and a soloution is provided eg. when an individual on TV is behaving in an anti social manner and the character deal with this in a pro social manner. Howvere, the danger here is that one may imitate the anti social behaviour, ignoring the pro social resolution. Huston and Lovelace therefore suggest the most effective way of communicating a pro social message is to present the pro social message on its own without any contrasting or conflicting anti social behaviour.
Increased pro social behaviour as a result of watching TV has been found in people of various ages. Friedrich and Stein found that american chidlren who watched episodes of a pro social TV programme remebered much of the pro social acts conained within the programme and also behaved in a more cooperative and helpful manner than those who wacthed neutral or aggressive programmes. Further support for the pro social effect of media has been provided by Haerold. After reviewing 230 studies on the pro socila effect of the media Haerold concluded that the beneficial effects of pro social programmes was almost twice as great as the effects of TV violence on aggression (this could be because pro social acts reinforce rather than contrast with our social norms). Howvere, Cornstock challenged Haerold's findings, suggesting it is not surprising such strong positve effects were found, as most of the studies were based on pro social programmes designed specifically to be pro social. 'Real life' pro social programmes may not therefore be as influencial. Furthermore, one of the problems with altruistic modelling is that behaviour is that behaviour is measured immediately after exposure to pro social behaviour, so it is questionable whether there are any real long term effects. Konop decided to test this in children ages 6 and 8 who saw cooperative behaviour being modelled. Both ages showed an immediate increase in ccoperation, yet 8 weeks later only the 8 year olds continued to show increased cooperation (and even this could be due to simple maturation/circumstances at the time). This suggects that the pro social effects of media is, in younger children at least, superficial. Hwoeverer, according to Mares and Woodland there may be influencial pro social messages in other types of pro social behaviour eg. children story books such as snow white traditionally carry pro social messages. Younger children are particularly fond of reading such stories over and over again, thus reinforcing the message. However, research in this area is somewhat dissapointing in terms of lack of research and moderate findings (especially when compared to anti social effcts of media). There needs to be more attention paid to this area as currently, findings are somewhat shaky.
*Along with the answer give example of Maharashtra MNS - incident that has provoked anti-state aggression etc.
*Sympathy towards women, poor (etc) (pro-social behaviour).
*Chandrayan-1 - Created the feeling of common acceptance, nationhood and promoted rational and scientific values (Pro-social behaviour).

syllabus for IAS MAINS

PSYCHOLOGY
PAPER - I
Foundations of Psychology
Section-A
1. Introduction: Definition of Psychology; Historical antecedents of Psychology and trends in the 21st century; Psychology and scientific methods; Psychology in relation to other social sciences and natural sciences; Application of Psychology to societal problems.
2. Methods of Psychology: Types of research: Descriptive, evaluative, diagnostic and prognostic; Methods of Research: Survey, observation, case-study and experiments; Characteristics of experimental design arid non-experimental Gesign, Quasi experimental designs; Focussed group discussions, brain storming, grounded theory approach.
3. Research Methods: Major steps in Psychological research (problem statement, hypothesis formulation, research designs, sampling, tools of data collection, analysis and interpretation and report writing) Fundamental versus applied research; Methods of data collection (interview, observation, questionnaire); Research designs (ex-post facto and experimental); Application of statistical technique (t - test, two way ANOV A correlation, regression and factor analysis); Item response theory.
4. Development of Human Behaviour: Growth and development; Principles of development, Role of genetic and environmental factors in determining human behaviour; Influence of cultural factors in socialization; Life span development Characteristics, development tasks, promoting psychological well-being across major stages of the life span.
5. Sensation, Attention and Perception: Sensation: concepts of threshold, absolute and difference thresholds, signal-detection and vigilance; Factors influencing attention including set and characteristics of stimulus; Definition and concept of perception, biological factors in perception; Perceptual organization-influence of past experiences, perceptual defence-factors influencing space and depth perception, size estimation and perceptual readiness; The plasticity of perception; Extrasensory perception; Culture and perception, Subliminal perception.
6. Learning: Concept and theories of learning (Behaviourists, Gestaltalist and Information processing models); The Processes of extinction, discrimination and generalization; Programmed learning, probability learning, self-instructional learning, concepts; Types and the schedules of reinforcement, escape, avoidance and punishment, modeling and social learning.
7. Memory: Encoding and remembering; Short term memory, Long term memory, Sensory memory, Iconic memory, Echoic memory: The Multistore. model, levels of processing; Organization and Mnemonic techniques to improve memory; Theories of forgetting: decay, interference and retrieval failure: Metamemory; Amnesia: Anterograde and retrograde.


Section-B
8. Thinking and Problem Solving: Piaget’s theory of cognitive development; Concept formation processes; Information processing, Reasoning and problem solving, Facilitating and hindering factors in problem solving, Methods of problem solving: Creative thinking and fostering creativity; Factors influencing decision making and judgment; Recent trends.
9. Motivation and Emotion: Psychological and physiological basis of motivation and emotion; Measurement of motivation and emotion; Effects of motivation and. emotion on behaviour; Extrinsic' and intrinsic motivation; Factors influencing intrinsic motivation; Emotional competence and the related issues.
10. Intelligence and Aptitude: Concept of intelligence and aptitude, Nature and theories of intelligence - Spearman, Thurstone, Gullford Vernon, Sternberg and J.P; Das; Emotional Intelligence, Social intelligence, measurement of intelligence and aptitudes, concept of IQ, deviation IQ, constancy of IQ; Measurement of multiple intelligence; Fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence.
11. Personality: Definition and concept of personality; Theories of personality (psychoanalytical, socio-cultural, interpersonal, developmental, humanistic, behaviouristic, trait and type approaches); Measurement of personality (projective tests, pencil-paper test); The Indian approach to personality; Training for personality development; Latest approaches like big 5 factor theory; The notion of self in different traditions
12. Attitudes, Values and Interests: Definition of attitudes, values and interests; Components of attitudes; Formation and maintenance of attitudes; Measurement of attitudes, values and interests; Theories of attitude change; Strategies for fostering values; Formation of stereotypes and prejudices; Changing others behaviour; Theories of attribution; Recent trends.
13. Language and Communication: Human language - Properties, structure and linguistic hierarchy, Language acquisition-predisposition, critical period hypothesis; Theories of language development - Skinner and Chomsky; Process and types of communication - effective communication training.
14. Issues and Perspectives in Modern Contemporary Psychology: Computer application in the psychological laboratory and psychological testing; Artificial intelligence; Psychocybernetics; Study of consciousness-sleep-wake schedules; dreams, stimulus deprivation, meditation, hypnotic/drug induced states; Extrasensory perception; Intersensory perception Simulation studies.

PAPER - II
Psychology: Issues and Applications
Section-A
1. Psychological Measurement of Individual Differences: The nature of individual differences; Characteristics and construction of standardized psychological tests; Types of psychological tests; Use, misuse and limitation of psychological tests; Ethical issues in the use of psychological tests.
2. Psychological well being and Mental Disorders: Concept of health-ill health; Positive health, well being; Causal factors in mental disorders (Anxiety disorders, mood disorders, schizophrenia and delusional disorders; personality disorders, substance abuse disorders); Factors influencing positive health, well being, life style and quality of life; Happiness disposition.
3. Therapeutic Approaches: Psychodynamic therapies; Behaviour therapies; Client centered therapy; Cognitive therapies; Indigenous therapies (Yoga, Meditation); Biofeedback therapy; Prevention and rehabilitation of the mentally ill; Fostering mental health.
4. Work Psychology and Organisational Behaviour: Personnel selection and training; Use of psychological tests in the industry; Training and human resource development; Theories of work motivation - Herzberg, Maslow, Adam Equity theory, Porter and Lawler, Vroom; Leadership and participatory management; Advertising and marketing; Stress and its management; Ergonomics; consumer psychology; Managerial effectiveness; Transformational leadership; Sensitivity training; Power and politics in organizations.
5. Application of Psychology to Educational Field: Psychological principles underlying effective teaching-learning process; Learning styles; Gifted, retarded, learning disabled and their training; Training for improving memory and better academic achievement; Personality development and value education, Educational, vocational guidance and career counseling; Use of psychological tests in educational institutions; Effective strategies in guidance programmes.
6. Community Psychology: Definition and concept of community psychology; Use of small groups in social action; Arousing community consciousness and action for handling social problems; Group decision making and leadership for social change; Effective strategies for social change.
7. Rehabilitation Psychology: Primary, secondary and tertiary prevention programmes role of psychologists; Organising of services for rehabilitation of physically, mentally and socially challenged persons including old persons, Rehabilitation of persons suffering from substance abuse, juvenile delinquency, criminal behaviour; Rehabilitation of victims of violence, Rehabilitation of HIV / AIDS victims, the role of social agencies.
Section-B
8. Application of Psychology to disadvantaged groups: The concepts of disadvantaged, deprivation; Social, physical, cultural and economic consequences of disadvantaged and deprived groups; Educating and motivating the disadvantaged towards development; Relative and prolonged deprivation.
9. Psychological problems of social integration: The concept of social integration; The problem of caste, class, religion and language conflicts and prejudice; Nature and manifestation of prejudice between the in-group and out-group; Causal factors of social conflicts and prejudices; Psychological strategies for handling the conflicts and prejudices; Measures to achieve social integration.
10. Application of Psychology in Information Technology and Mass Media: The present scenario of information technology and the mass media boom and the role of psychologists; Selection and training of psychology professionals to work in the field of IT and mass media; Distance learning through IT and mass media; Entrepreneurship through e-commerce; Multilevel marketing; Impact of TV and fostering value through IT and mass media; Psychological consequences of recent developments in Information Technology .
11. Psychology and Economic development: Achievement motivation and economic development; Characteristics of entrepreneurial behaviour; Motivating and training people for entrepreneurship and economic development; Consumer rights and consumer awareness, Government policies for promotion of entrepreneurship among youth including women entrepreneurs.
12. Application of psychology to environment and related fields: Environmental psychology-effects of noise, pollution and crowding; Population psychology: psychological consequences of population explosion and high population density; Motivating for small family norm; Impact of rapid scientific and technological growth on degradation of environment.
13. Application of psychology in other fields:
(a) Military Psychology
Devising psychological tests for defence personnel for use in selection, Training, counseling; training psychologists to work with defence personnel in promoting positive health; Human engineering in defence.
(b) Sports Psychology
Psychological Interventions in improving performance of athletes and sports. Persons participating in Individual and Team Games.
(c) Media influences on pro and antisocial behaviour.
(d) Psychology of terrorism.
14. Psychology of Gender:
Issues of discrimination, Management prophesy, Women and Indian society of diversity; Glass ceiling effect, Self fulfilling prophesy, Women an Indian society.