information processing theories of learning

INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORIES OF LEARNING

Information processing theories of learning represent the group of theories that make use of the concept of information processing for explaining the mechanism of learning. Let us, therefore, try to understand the meaning and concept of information processing for gaining insight in the nature of these theories.

What is Information Processing?

Simply put, information processing stands for an act of processing the information, i.e. to analyze, employ or make use of information for gaining some knowledge or experience. In the words of Joyce and Weil-"lnformation processing refers to the ways people handle stimuli from the environment, organize data, sense problems, generate concepts and solutions to problems, and employ verbal and non-verbal symbols."

In this way information processing deals with the ways and means an information (sensory input or data) is handled by an individual for deriving desired meaning for its further use. Consequently, the handling or processing of the information may help an individual in gaining new experiences and insight for the solution of felt problems or modification of his ways of behaving.

Information Processing Theories
The way people process the available information (resulting in gaining new experiences or bringing modification in their behaviour), may give birth to significant theories of learning. This very assumption has led to the formulation and establishment of some well known learning theories termed as information processing theories of learning. The key question answered by all these information processing theories of learning is: "Cognitively, what process are occurring in a person's brain when they are presented with a learning situation." Consequently they throw light on the mechanism how the human brain senses, processes and recalls information. The working of our brain, in terms of information processing, may be easily equated to the working of computers. Like computers, the information processing in human brain may find its expression in the mechanism of input, processing and output. The brain receives sensory impulses from the environment and decides to process this input as warranted. Processing depends on the nature and complexity of the data as perceived by the learner. The way, information is received, processed and recalled by the learner then decides the outcomes of his learning.

For gaining some idea about the nature and functioning of information processing theories of learning, we would be discussing here some of the popular theories and models of instruction developed by the eminent psychologists. In such description, we may easily notice a significant trend that all these Information processing theorists approach learning primarily through a study of memory and so you can find due mention of the terms related to the process of memorization like temporary memory, short term memory, long term memory, recall, retrieval, etc. Let us begin with the description of these theories one by one.

Three Stage Information Processing Theory
This theory is the outcome of the ideas propagated by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968, 1971). According to this theory, learning is the outcome of the processing of the information carried out by human brain at the following three stages.
(i) Sensory registry (ii) Short term memory and (iii) Long term memory.
1. The process of learning or memorization thus starts with the interaction of one's sense organs with one's environment. The sensory information is first picked up by one or more sense organs, then it travels through the nervous system and reaches the brain for its interpretation. The sensory information stays in the nervous system Gust to register its presence) briefly about a second or two, giving brain the time for its interpretation. After being registered in the sensory register, it can be responded immediately or may be transferred to the short term memory. Usually it depends upon the nature of sensory information and its interpretation by the brain. The brain may interpret it as useless or of little significance and thus may order for its disappearance from the sensory register or it may be ordered for its monitoring at a low attention level. As an example of such type of information processing at the sensory registry level, we can cite the driving of our car while carrying on a conversation. Here we can monitor and respond to driving conditions without transferring the information to short term memory.
2. The information not processed or vanished at the level of sensory registry then travels to short term memory (STM) of our brain. It may automatically stay for up to 20 seconds here. However, it can be retained as long as an individual wants it in his short term memory through rehearsal or repetition. Short tenn memory is equivalent to one's working memory. It is here that the information is duly processed by the brain for its proper interpretation, assimilation and responding. There are usually three means employed for the information processing or handling of cognitive tasks in STM. These are:
(i) Encoding the information in chunks. (ii) Breaking the information into sub parts and then processing them one at a time. (iii) Practicing skills until they are automatic.

3. The information unprocessed at the short term memory stage, is then transferred to the long term memory (LTM). LTM is believed to have unlimited capacity and duration. It is used for storing and procession of sensory information on a permanent basis. The stored as well as organized information in the long tenn memory (LTM) in the coded form is transferred back to the short term memory where it is decoded and employed for response as desired and ordered by our brain.
Levels of Processing Theory
This theory of information processing has been put up by Craik and Lokhart (1972) as an alternative to the above discussed information processing theory postulating three stages-sensory, working and long term memory for the processing of information. The main ideas lying within this theory may be summarized as below:
• Memory is of only one kind rather than of three types namely, sensory, short term and long term.
• Ability to learn or remember is dependent on how deeply information is processed by us.
• Levels of such processing may range from very shallow to very deep.
• The greater the depth of processing, the better can the material be learned or remembered.
For example, information that involves strong visual images or many associations with existing knowledge will be processed at a deeper level. Similarly information that suits our interests or serves our purposes well will receive more processing than other stimuli events.
• The things that are meaningful to us are processed quite deeply in comparison to the meaningless or less meaningful stimuli and are consequently learnt or remembered well.
• Processing of inf6rmation at different levels is carried out quite unconsciously and automatically unless we attend it to that level. For example, we are usually not aware of the sensory properties of stimuli, or what we have in own working memory, unless we are asked to specifically identify such information. From this it follows that there is hardly any place for the mechanism of attention in the processing of information. It may thus be taken as an interruption in processing of information rather than a cognitive process in its own right.

Miller's Information Processing Theory
This theory has been put forward by George A. Miller as an extension of the earlier approaches of cognitive psychologists expressing learning primarily in terms of the study of the process of memorization. The main ideas behind his theory may be summarized as below:
(i) Information processing helps in acquiring new experiences and learning new ways of behaving.
(ii) Students learn better when they are actively processing, storing and retrieving information.
(iii) Information processing helps the students build desirable cognitive structures (structuring of the subject matter) for the proper comprehension and understanding.
(iv) Successful encoding is essential for the proper processing of the received sensory information or data. Working memory (STM) also processes the information for being transferred to Long Term Memory (LTM) by encoding the information. Therefore, meaningful encoding is a must for the desired task of information processing.
(v) Miller (1956) presented the concept of "Chunking" for the meaningful organization or encoding of the subject matter at all levels of cognitive processing. Classical example of chunks is the ability to remember long sequences of binary numbers because they can be encoded into decimal form. For example the sequence 1010001001 11001 101 1010 could easily be remembered as 20 9 25 5 10. Of course this would only work for someone who can convert binary to decimal numbers (i.e. the chunks are meaningful).
(vi) We can expand the capacity of a person holding information in his short term memory by utilizing the concept of chunking. It can hold 5-9 chunks of information (seven plus or minus two). Therefore information should always be organized in the form of chunks (meaningful units) for its better processing and fruitful learning outcomes.
(vii) The second useful concept regarding that of the information processing (other than chunking) propagated by Miller is concerned with his acceptance of the computer as a model of human learning. Like the computer, the human mind takes in information, performs operations on it to change its forms and content, stores and locates it and generate responses to it. Thus information processing, according to Miller, involves (i) gathering and representing information, i.e. encoding, (ii) holding information, i.e. retention and (iii) getting at the information when needed, i.e. retrieval.
(viii) The third useful concept emphasized in Miller's information processing theory is known by the term TOTE (Test Operate Test Exit). By introducing this concept, Miller et. al. (1960) suggested that TOTE should replace the stimulus response mechanism as the basic unit of behaviour. In a TOTE unit, a goal is tested to see if it has been achieved through the mechanism of information processing. If not, an operation is performed to achieve the goal, fhis cycle of test-operate is repeated until the goal is eventually achieved or abandoned. By adopting this technique, an individual may be capable of finding the solution of his problem or learning the desired way of achieving his goal.

Dual Coding Theory of Information Processing
This theory has been proposed by A. Paivio as an attempt to give equal weightage in the processing of verbal and non-verbal information in the task of learning. On account of its emphasis on the dual functionality of the verbal and non-verbal information, the theory has been named as Dual coding theory. Initiating his theory Paivio (1986) writes: "Human cognition is unique in that it has become specialized for dealing simultaneously with language and with non-verbal objects and events. Moreover, the language system is peculiar in that it deals directly with linguistic input and output (in the form of speech or writing) while at the same time serving a symbolic function with respect to non-verbal objects, events, and behaviours. Any representational theory must accommodate this dual functionality."

The chief characteristics and main ideas lying behind the dual coding theory of information processing may be summarized as below:
1. According to this theory, there are three types of processing namely representational, referential and associative. A given task may require any or all the three kinds of processing narrated as below:
(i) In representational information processing, there remains a direct activation of verbal and non-verbal representation.
(ii) In referential information processing, there remains an activation of the verbal system by the non-verbal system or vice-versa.
(iii) In associative information processing, there remains an activation of representation within the same verbal or non-verbal system.
2. The theory is based on the assumption that there lies two cognitive subsystems recognized as below.
• The one of these subsystems is specialized for the representation and processing of non-verbal objects or events. (i.e. imagery) .
• The other subsystem is specialized for dealing with language.
3. Based on the above referred two cognitive subsystems, Paivio in his theory postulated two different types of representational units (Similar to "Chunks" as described by Miller) as mentioned below.
(i) Representational units named as 'imagens' for mental images (non-verbal information).
(ii) Representation units named as 'logogens' for verbal entities (verbal information).
4. According to Paivio while logogens are organized in terms of associations and hierarchies, the imagens are organized in terms of part-whole relationships.

5. By following the above mentioned systems and pattern of organization, the information (verbal and non-verbal) is processed appropriately by the individual learner for the desired learning outcomes.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATION OF THE THEORIES OF INFORMATION PROCESSING

All the theories of information processing described above may be said to have the following educational implications.
1. The information (verbal or non-verbal) should be organized in terms of meaningful units for its better processing and fruitful learning outcomes.
2. Students should be helped in focusing on the most important details and separating less vital information.
3. Students should be helped in making connection between new information and what they already know.
4. As far as it is adequate and possible, students should be provided for repetition and review of information.
5. The learning material experiences (Instruction) should be organized in a clear, systematic and organized way.
6. We must always focus on meaning and not the memorization of information on the part of students.